British Chartism :: essays research papers

The outcome of the social revolutions of 1830-1833 left Europe in a general sense of discontent. Governments were doing their best to limit democratic movements by restricting voting privileges to the wealthier middle classes. Limited voting power kept the Whig party “safe'; from radical pressure in Britain. These absurd manipulations of the electorate and parliament encouraged democrats and radicals (middle classes) from all over Europe to protest and eventually uprise.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  One of the best, most comprehensive examples of a social revolution in this period is Britain’s Chartism. This radical movement pushed for democratic rights in order to improve social conditions in industrial Great Britain. It arose from the popular discontent following the Reform Act of 1832, which gave very little importance to large, industrial boroughs in parliament. Movements of mass discontent in Yorkshire and Lancashire caused by industrial exploitation and economic depression had already taken place.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In 1838, the cabinet-maker William Lovett and the tailor Francis Place wrote the “People’s Charter';. It is best known for its “Six Points';, which proposed the following: universal manhood sufferage, equal electoral districts, vote by ballot, payment of members of Parliament, removal of the property qualification for the Members of Parliament, and annual general elections. The first five of these demands were granted (even though it took until 1918 to finalize the decision), but the sixth was refused because it stressed the radical infuence on the program. The Whig belief of the sovreignty of the parliament clashed with that of the radicals, who felt that the parliament should be entirely subject to the will of the people.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Even though Chartism originated from London’s the artisans and radicals, it found most of its support from the industrial middles classes of northern England. The Birmingham Union and Leeds’ radicals soon joined forces in an element of extremism. Two Irish orators, Bronterre O’Brien and Feargus O’Connor brought together hundreds of starving men and women, preeching violent propaganda (O’Conner reached out to so many people also thanks to his newspaper, Northern Star). People all across Great Britain (including European refugees and exiles) were now fighting for one common cause; “The Charter';.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Chartism reached its highest point with the calling of a National Convention just meters from the House of Parliament. An enormous petition for which hundreds of thousands of signatures had been collected was presented to the Parliament. Following the submission of the petition, the question on everybody’s mind was what to do if the Parliament were to reject the document.

Orthodox Jewish Wedding Essay

Marriage is normally a ceremony done in churches, in government premises, or in modern ones like beaches and gardens. It is usually done as a sign of love between two people. Marriage used to be a very sacred ceremony as two people say their vows to each other. Different cultures do this in different manners. In this paper, we will discover how the Orthodox Jewish wedding is done. This would prove the diversity of cultures in the world and how the Jewish community carries out their traditions and belief. This is divided into three parts that include the preparations done before the wedding, the set up days before the wedding and the wedding proper. When two people fall in love, what they want to end up mostly is a bride and a groom or a husband and a wife. Although it is altered by some other reasons in the modern times, the idea of marriage is still considered sacred by most of us. Although socio-economic status, health, dynasty and other things affect the people’s view on marriage, we still cannot take away the fact that the people who get married always ask for a happy life. Whatever reason they may have, the bottom line is still that they are searching for contentment in any way. A Jewish wedding day, the same with all other religions, is something that they really celebrate. Different kinds of rituals happen weeks before and during this day, in consideration of their history and heritage. As soon as the couple gets engaged, rituals already take place. It includes breaking a plate to represent the temples in Jerusalem that were destructed. It is to signify that even if they are enjoying in the celebration of the wedding, they are still saddened with the fact that these temples were destroyed before. It is also usual for the parents to do the arrangement of the wedding, with the help of someone like a match-maker called Yenta. Although this is so, the groom is still required to ask the bride’s father for her hand in marriage and to pay a dowry in exchange of the bride (Retrieved on December 11, 2008 from http://www. bbc. co. uk/religion/religions/judaism/rites/weddings_1. shtml). Judaism sees this practice as sacred. They think that without a man and a woman, each of the sexes will never be complete. They complement each other and each compensates what the other loses. They also teach in their doctrines that any person without getting married doesn’t experience the absolute joy and contentment in this life. It means that being married gives satisfaction to people, especially when they are blessed by God. When referring to marriage, they usually use the term â€Å"sanctification† which usually refers to the spirituality of the bond that binds two people and of the commandment made by God. They also see it as something that has a purpose. They view marriage as a perquisite to reproduction and friendship. It is both procreation and companionship. In the bible, as they believe, â€Å"It is not good for a man to be alone†. It is also a practice of each person’s legal rights through a contractual agreement where they sign on. Although there were times when the Jews were dispersed all over the world, they are still successful in preserving this practice as they live. This is probably because they really believe in the practice, because through it, history proves that families stayed stable and happy when they underwent the same kind of marriage . Jewish weddings are almost the same. They are made easier by the Rabbis by asking for a very minimal requirement. The Rabbis is the one who makes the laws in this kind of ritual (Retrieved on December 11, 2008 from http://www. confetti. co. uk/article/view/5054-7598-0-). Marriage in the Orthodox Jewish is very much full of traditions that show practice and devotion. In planning their weddings, every detail is very important. They take the preparation as a challenge of their capacity and a challenge to celebrate the wedding successfully. They pay too much attention to all the needs of the ceremony that makes every wedding a perfect one. The Orthodox Jews are believed to be the strictest among the strands of the Jewish faith. Their wedding ceremony is done by combining the legal and religious aspects of marriage. In case one of the couple is non-Jewish, he or she is asked to convert to the same religion. They believe that happiness cannot be achieved if they don’t undergo marriage, which is a license to fulfillment in the world. Also, it is said that when they get married, they don’t just focus on material and temporal elements of the preparation, but they also assure that their doctrines are properly carried out and that their spiritual and moral preparedness is enveloped on the marriage itself. It just proves that although their marriage is after a good life on earth, they still put in more consideration the supernatural and their religion per se (Retrieved on December 11, 2008 from http://www. confetti. co. uk/article/view/5054-7598-0-). Planning an Orthodox Jewish wedding is very tedious. They must consider a lot of things for them to be able to come up with a successful one. Most of the Jewish couple provides a planner that would make it easier for them to see chronologically their plans and the specifics of the ceremony. Through that, they will be able to get organized and efficient in the planning of the main event. The date of the wedding is usually known after they already register with a synagogue and Rabbi at the Chief Rabbi’s office. The time of the day and the day itself are also given much attention to in planning a wedding. It is usual to marry in the afternoon or in the evening, but you can also marry anytime of the day according to what the couple desires. Most of them, however, choose to marry on days like Sunday and Tuesday. It is also not allowed to do the wedding three weeks between July and August and on the Sabbath of festival days (Rosh Hashanah, Yom Kippur, Passover Shavuot, and Sukkoth). In case, they want to get married on a Saturday, they prohibit doing the ceremony earlier than two hours before the sun is down (Retrieved on December 11, 2008 from http://www. onfetti. co. uk/article/view/5054-7598-0-). In general, the first thing to do in planning it is to choose a date that they both want. They usually choose special days like the birth or the death of their rabbis to make a more meaningful celebration. Like other people getting married, they choose a date that means something to them or a date that is significant in their relationship. They also must specify a place or a venue which has enough space for dancing and a wide area where you can put a divider to separate men and women for modesty’s sake. They are very much particular with modesty which they can prove by separating people of different sexes during the wedding ceremony. They must also choose a rabbi to preside the wedding ceremony and a sofer or a Jewish scribe to take charge of the Ketuba or the marriage contract. After that, they must tell their relatives and friends about the wedding and invite them to attend on it. Attendees on this kind of practice matters a lot to the couple because the wedding would not mean anything at all without the presence of a specific number of people. Once they confirm their attendance, they can already inform the caterer about the approximate number of visitors. This is usually done to avoid hassles to both families of the groom and the bride and to assure that everyone eats enough as they celebrate that most important part of their couple life. After that, they must inform those people who are taking part in the wedding to dress accordingly. This is also a sign of respect to the practice. The female ones must use clothes covering the knees and the arms to the elbows, while the married ones must cover their air. Men must wear yarmulkes. The couple must make the wedding canopy from a cloth that is velvet or from a prayer shawl. This is to signify the clouds that helped Jews with everything when they were in the desert. They must make sure that they have the dress, rings without anything engraved in them, and the other things. The bride must make sure she has a veil thicker than the others’ to wear it on the wedding day. From that, they must find a schedule to do the veiling ritual prior the wedding ceremony. It is said that such a practice symbolizes the biblical story that happened between Jacob and Rachel, when they planned to get married. They must assign seven men to utter the words of blessings with a wine. Lastly, they must secure a room for the couple where they can spend on after the wedding proper. They are expected to stay there before they eat and spend time together alone for a certain period (Retrieved on December 11, 2008 from http://www. ehow. com/how_2077192_plan-orthodox-jewish-wedding. html). The wedding invitation is usually two sided and has an English translation at the right side. It does not ask for the person’s presence, instead it is asking people to â€Å"dance at† or â€Å"share in the joy of†. In this kind of ritual, visitors are very important, because they play a very vital role in the process. The copies of the invitation may be distributed and may be given by the couple or both of their parents. Sometimes, the invitation also includes biblical quotes to explain people why such thing is done or to further elaborate the importance of each part of the program (Retrieved on December 11, 2008 from http://www. weddingdetails. com/lore/jewish. cfm). All of the guests are provided with copy of the program for them to know exactly what part they are in during the wedding proper. It may also include some Ketuba texts, the vendors’ names, a note coming from the bridal couple and some explanations of the different elements of the ceremony. This is also done to avoid unnecessary noises when they ask others why a particular thing is done (Retrieved on December 11, 2008 from http://www. weddingdetails. com/lore/jewish. cfm). The Orthodox bride must prepare something white, while the groom must have a short white linen robe called a kittel. The bride is also expected to visit mikyah in the morning of her wedding. This is done to make sure that the bride undergoes a ritual bath that is believed to purify her and to make her a better woman as she gets married (Retrieved on December 11, 2008 from http://www. weddingdetails. com/lore/jewish. cfm). It is also a must, that in able for a couple to get married in the Orthodox Jewish tradition, it is a perquisite that their parents also married in the same manner. Usually, both of their parents underwent the same practice. If in case their parents did not undergo the practice, they must talk to the rabbi for clarification. The ceremony includes singing and reading from the psalms. The wedding usually takes an hour before it finally ends. The wedding can actually occur anywhere, depending on what the groom and the bride choose. Given a desired venue, the bride or the Kallah and the groom or the Chatan, must stand under a canopy. The venue as chosen by them is usually paid by the bride’s parents. The validity of the wedding depends on the number of males present. There must e ten of them, which in their tradition, is called minyan (Retrieved on December 11, 2008 from http://www. confetti. co. uk/article/view/5054-7598-0-). Prior to the ceremony, the groom may spend time with his friends as eat and drink together on a table, called chassans tisch. Brides, on the other hand, take three or seven times circling her groom which is also a practice based on their bible (Retrieved on December 11, 2008 from http://www. weddingdetails. com/lore/jewish. cfm). When the guests arrive on the wedding day, males go with the groom in a certain room, while the female ones go with the bride in another room where she sits on a throne-type chair. This is called â€Å"public beckoning† and may be spent with just family and other guests (Retrieved on December 11, 2008 from http://www. eddingdetails. com/lore/jewish. cfm). A service usually starts with the opening from the rabbi, followed by a bride being escorted to the canopy. It is then followed by a ritual of circling the groom by the bride. This also has a hidden meaning. The benedictions are read after and then the sharing of the cup of wine. The exchange of the rings is then done, followed by the reading of ketuba. Another cup of wine is offered which is shared by the groom and the bride. It was first blessed and told with a prayer for the companionship and joy of the newly wed. Later on, they are proclaimed as husband and wife and they are showered with rice and are greeted with a toast (Retrieved on December 11, 2008 from http://www. weddingdetails. com/lore/jewish. cfm). During the marriage proper, the groom is asked to read from the Torah. That ritual is called Aufruf. Further, it is like a way of congratulating the couple, and letting the public know that they are getting married soon. In the same practice, some brides throw candies and nuts as he finishes the recitation of the benedictions. Through that, they are able to ask for a sweet and fertile life. The groom gives his bride a ring that is a sign of love. It is put on the bride’s right index finger, up to the second knuckle. It is so, because they believe that such a finger points to the soul and that it is used in pointing when they are reading the Torah. On the contrary, she puts the ring on his left ring finger. As they are doing this, they are reciting a Hebrew statement called haray aht (Retrieved on December 11, 2008 from http://www. weddingdetails. com/lore/jewish. cfm). In summary, preparing for the Orthodox Jewish Wedding is no easy thing. It requires a lot of effort to come up with an acceptable wedding that takes in consideration both the earthly and the religious aspect of life. Through this paper, we can also picture that even if there are still more days before the wedding, the people are already busy planning the event and are already doing some practices for the benefit of the big day. The wedding proper shows that values of these people as they do the rituals associated with getting married. It is also very obvious that they are really trying hard to avoid getting away from the proper way of doing it. Before and after the wedding, they are very optimistic about their, because of their trust to the Almighty. Everyone is looking forward to a happy and a blessed life ahead as they undergo the blessing of God through marriage. Celebration of their wedding is really something that the Jewish community must really be proud of. It is full of traditions that only their group inhibits and practices as well. Their culture is very rich and admirable. This is only a proof that cultures vary from place to place and that each culture has its beauty that everyone can admire. It is the Jewish community’s pride to have this and definitely, there are not just proud, but happy about acquiring this kind of culture.

International businesses often do encounter political and country risks - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 7 Words: 1996 Downloads: 9 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? Introduction: Political and country risks: Financial institutions and business organizations operate its business activities abroad in order to diversify and expand their sources of revenue and profitability. Organizations that make investment in a foreign market either in the form of equity or assets are exposed to risks that may arise either from an act of the host government or from other external political events taking place in that country, these risks include social, political and economic conditions and events that imposes negative impact on the financial performance and profitability of foreign organizations. Types of political and country risks: The following are the main types of political and country risks that may affect the business performance of an international organization operating in foreign countries. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "International businesses often do encounter political and country risks" essay for you Create order Nationalization or deprivation: Nationalization is a process whereby a government takeover privately owned industries, corporations and resources with or without compensation. Nationalization is a political risk which makes it very difficult or impossible for international organizations to invest in a country where businesses are exposed to such risk. In past governments have nationalized highly profitable industries on the ground that it does not want foreign ownership of its valuable resources for instance in 2006 the Bolivian government nationalized the countrys oil and natural gas industries. Similarly in January 2007 the Government of Venezuela announced to nationalize firms in two major sectors of the countrys economy i.e. telecommunications and electricity. In November 2009 the president of Venezuela announced that he will nationalize banks in the country. Forced divestiture: forced divestiture another type of country risk in which an international firm is forced to divest its business operation, an example of forced divestiture is the Indonesian subsidiary of French retail giant Carrefour which has been ordered to sell the 75% stake it acquired in smaller rival Alfa Retailindo in January 2008. Gradual expropriation: Expropriation means a quick action of government to seize the assets of foreign entity, but in gradual expropriation a single international company is targeted by the host government. Gradual or creeping expropriation involves slow and gradual removal of property rights by way of tax increase on profits to make a foreign business less profitable, increase in property tax, instituting increasing barriers, changing the proportion of ownership which must be held locally. In gradual expropriation the ownership title of business remains in the name of foreign investor but the right to use the business is diminished as a result of the government interference. An example of gradual expropriation is when China announced a policy restricting the property rights of domestic and foreign automakers to transfer their ownership or enter into strategic alliance in China, by banning the sale or transfer of manufacturing licenses by bankrupt or failing automakers. Similarly in Tecinicas Medioambientales Tecmed S.A. V. The United Mexican States it was declared that the Mexican government has committed expropriation because of non-renewal of a license necessary to operate the landfill. Currency inconvertibility and exchange: Currency inconvertibility means a situation where one currency can not be converted or exchanged into foreign currency. This is another political risk for an organization operating its business activities abroad. In such case a foreign government may restrict the right of foreign firms to repatriate profits to their home country and all profits remain in the foreign country. Inconvertibility of currency may arise due to passing new legislation or administrative delays. In administrative delays the bureaucracy in a foreign country takes more time in currency conversion and creates a financial burden upon foreign companies. Some countries issues inconvertible currency for instance Cuban peso in order to protect its citizens from perceived capitalist infiltration, similarly domestic regulators may consider foreign currency inconvertible in order to protect local investors from bad investment decision i.e. hyperinflation of currency. Termination of fuel supply agreements: Termination of fuel supply agreement is another political risk for an international organization functioning in a foreign country. A foreign company whose business activities are solely dependent upon fuel supply under an agreement with the host government, or with the host company and when such agreement is terminated than in such circumstances the company will face major problem in continuing its business in such foreign country. Confiscation: Confiscation of international business is a severe form of political risks where host government seizes the assets of a foreign company without compensation. The U.S. 1996 Helms-Burton Law entitles the U.S. companies to sue companies from other countries that use property confiscated from U.S. companies following Cubas communist revolution in 1959. But the U.S. government waived this law repeatedly in order to maintain good relations with other countries. Terrorism and kidnapping: Kidnapping and other terrorist activities are means of making political statements. Small groups unhappy about the current political or social situation can resort to terrorist tactics to fulfill their demands. 9/11 tragedy is a prominent example. These groups may target the executives of large international companies for kidnapping and taking of hostages in order to fund their terrorist activities. The current political instability, terrorist activities and internal conflicts in Pakistan is a good example, where an international firm is exposed to a verity of threats arising from such activities and makes it impossible for such firm to operate business effectively and increase its profitability. Policy changes: Furthermore good relationship between the host government and international companies is of vital importance for operating a successful and profitable business and any political change that modify the anticipated effect and worth of a given economic action by changing the likelihood of achieving business objectives than it affects international businesses to a greater extent and the governments hard and fast new policies can create huge problems for international companies. Contractual frustration: Frustration of contract means legal termination of contract between the parties because of unforeseen circumstances which makes the performance of such contract practically impossible. These circumstances include, accident, change in law, sickness of one of the parties and interference from third party etc. In international business perspective companies that enter into trade agreements for export or import of goods or services either with government or private entities in foreign countries are often exposed to underlying political risks. Such contract may be frustrated at any time for a number of political reasons that are beyond the control of the parties. Transfer: Transfer risks take place when host government policies imposes limitation on the transfer of capital, payments, production, people and technology in and out of country i.e. imposing tariffs or restrictions on import and export, repatriation of capital or remittance of dividend etc. Trade disruptions: Devaluation: Screening for political risks: In order to operate successful business activities overseas it is very important for international companies to identify, analyze, measure and manage those political and country risks that are encountered by such company. Analysis of political risks: In order to analyze political risks, these are categorizes in two levels according to their nature, severity and intensity i.e. Macro political risk analysis and micro political risk analysis. Macro political risk analysis: This is an analysis that observes major political decisions likely to affect all businesses in a country. Macro risk factors include freezing the movement of assets out of the host country, limiting the remittance of profits or capital, currency devaluation, refusing to perform contractual obligations previously signed with the MNCs, industrial piracy (counterfeiters), political disorder and government corruption. Micro political risk analysis: This is an analysis that is directed towards government policies and decisions that influence selected sectors of the economy or specific foreign businesses in the country. The examples are selective discrimination, industry regulation, imposition of taxes on specific types of activity, restrictive local laws and host government policies that promote exports and discourage import. Management of political risks: Political risks can be managed through applying different strategies i.e. avoidance, reduction or shifting of risk and post commitment practices. Avoidance: If any enterprise realizes that making investment in a country will expose such enterprise to political risks the most simple strategy to keep away from such political risks is not to invest in such country and to go somewhere else, this is pre-commitment strategy that can be used before the commencement and making any final commitment. Reduction or shifting of risk: Another way of managing political risk is that a foreign company can implement a financial structure that shifts risks to local creditors and shareholders. Similarly contracts can be designed whereby a force majeure clause is included to revise and free contractual parties from their contractual obligations in case of any violence, coup, insurrection and long-term trade disruption etc. Post-commitment practices: Post-commitment practices mean adoption of strategies after making investment and commencement of business activities in overseas market. This kind of strategy takes various forms i.e. modification of employment or the ownership of the business, minority interest, designing operational structure, diversification and taking insurance policy. Modification of employment or the ownership of the business: If a foreign firms top management is controlled by local nationals or their ownership is significant or establishing of a joint venture of 50-50 ownership with a local firm than the host government would have less incentive to nationalize such business. Minority interest: Another useful strategy of managing political risks is to adopt minority interest in the business. Designing operational structure: Designing the operational structure of business in a way that attracts the inflow of foreign exchange in the host country and establishing good relations and close cooperation of management with the host government will also safeguard such firm from any threat from the host government. Diversification: If any political risk is encountered by a foreign firm while operating business activities overseas the best way is to diversify and expand its business operation into other countries that are not exposed to such type of risks. Taking insurance policy: Moreover to avoid any kind of loss that can be inflicted due to any political or country risk the company can go for insurance policy but it is very expensive and can minimize the profitability of such firm. conclusion: Catherine Rampell, When Government Takes Over Industries in Trouble, The New York Times, January 21, 2009: Available https://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/22/business/worldbusiness/22poundbox.html Caracas, Chavez to nationalize strategic sectors, The Washington Times, Tuesday, January 9, 2007: Available https://washingtontimes.com/news/2007/jan/09/20070109-122511-8759r Venezuelan President Hugo Chavez threatens to nationalize banks, The Times of India, International Business, 30 November 2009: Available https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/biz/international-business/Venezuelan-President-Hugo-Chavez-threatens-to-nationalize-banks/articleshow/5282995.cms Business Monitor International, Carrefour forced to divest Alfa Retailindo Stake, Indonesia- Mass Srocery Retail, Nov 5 2009: Available https://store.businessmonitor.com/article/302304 John OConnell., Creeping Expropriation, The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Management. 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The United Mexican States, International Centre for Settlement of Investment of Disputes (May 29, 2003) Case No. ARB (AF)/00/2: Available https://icsid.worldbank.org/ICSID/FrontServlet?requestType=CasesRHactionVal=showDocdocId=DC602_EncaseId=C186 John OConnell., Currency Inconvertibility, The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Management. Blackwell Publishing,. Blackwell Reference Online. 22 December 2009: Available https://www.blackwellreference.com/public/tocnode?id=g9780631233176_chunk_g97806312349376_ss1-191#citation Inconvertibility, Financial Dictionary: Available https://financial-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Inconvertibility Wild. J. J. et al (2008) International business the challenges of globalization, 4th edition, Prentice Hall, New Jersey p 97 Wild. J. J. et al (2008) International business the challenges of globalization, 4th edition, Prentice Hall, New Jersey p96. Frustration of contract, Business Dictionary: Available https://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/frustration-of-contract.html olitical Risks Briefing for Contract Frustration, Marsh an MMC company, July 2001, p 1: Available https://www.global.marsh.com/documents/contractFrustration.pdf